Vibrations caused by earthquakes generate additional loading. Shear stresses develop which cause damage to structural elements. Since masonry, which can be stressed relatively high in compression, is weak in resisting bending and shear, collapse is often the result. The different failures modes of masonry are:

Geological cycle includes many processes acting simultaneously. The most important of these begin with molten magma from within the earth forming into rock, then continue with rocks being broken down into soil, and that soil being converted back into rock.

Since the thermal expansion of concrete is different from that of masonry. The interface between the concrete and the masonry is liable to crack. To avoid this crack the chicken wire mesh is used to avoid the crack and also provides the better grip for Masonry with concrete. Similarly when the drainage pipes are laid along with the outer wall then again the connection between the pipe and

Calculate the average wastewater flow, Qavg = (70-80) % of average water consumption. Select a peak factor, PF = [(18+√P)/(4+√P)], where P = population in thousands. Calculate the peak wastewater flow, Qpeak = (PF * Qavg)

The formation of soil starts with the parent material and continues for a very long period of time taking 1000 years or more. As the parent material is weathered and / or transported, deposited and precipitated it is transformed into a soil. The parent material may be in the form of bedrock, glacial deposits, and loose deposits under water or material moving down sloping